Other+Hormones

=Other Hormones __ [] __ I found this site to be very helpful with information on many types of drugs along with pictures to illustrate their mechanism of action. Its an onlince book called Medical Pharmacology at a glance.= = What are hormones? = Hormones are chemical messengers that regulate bodily processes such as growth, reproduction, metabolism, digestion, mineral and fluid balance, and the functioning of various organs. Hormones exert substantial control over the following behavior patterns: parental care, territorial behavior, metamorphosis (in insects), foraging behavior, and circadian rhythms (behavior patterns that always occur at the same time each day). Most hormones fall into two main categories: · peptides (chains of amino acids) ·  lipids (which include **steroids).** =The Endocrine System = The major endocrine glands are 1- The pituitary located at the base of the brain 2-  The thyroid 3-  The parathyroid in the neck, 4-  The pancreas, <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; msofareastfontfamily: Georgia; msobidifontfamily: Georgia; mso-fareast-font-family: Georgia; msolist: Ignore;">5- <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">adrenals =<span style="color: #365f91; font-family: Cambria; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Pituitary Gland = <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The pituitary gland is composed of two lobes, the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The anterior pituitary produces six major hormones (see chart below), the most abundent hormone is GH or growth hormone. <span style="font-family: Georgia, serif;">-The direct effect of GH include: lipolysis in fat cells and stimulation of hepatic glucose output. (Opposite effects of insulin). The indirect effects include: insulin like, growth promoting factor. Somtimes this is abused by athletes due to the lean muscle building mass that occurs and the potent anabolic agent. The GH releasing hormone is more prominently used in growth retardation children and may have role in clinical managment of burn injuries. Adverse effects of growth hormone include: Diabeties in AIDS patients, decreased insulin sensitivity with a posible increase in diabetes type 2 in children. Arthralgia in the hands and wrist, headaches and intercranial hypertension. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">·  <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The posterior pituitary stores two hormones originating in the hypothalamus (Vasopressin and Oxytocin). <span style="font-family: Georgia, serif;">-Vasopressin: acts on kidney to increase water reabsorpion. Plays important role in long term control of blood pressure. May be given IV, IM, or intranaslly. It is rapidly metabolized in kidney and liver. Vasopressin is also used to control bleeding in certain conditions such as von Willebrand factor and clotting factor VII and is used to treat certain types of hemophillia. There are two subtypes of vasopressin: V1 and V2. V1: Pathway responsible for vasoconstrictor action of vasopressin. V2: Stimulation leads to antidiureteic effect. Lack of antidiuretic hormone leads to diabetes insipidus, resulting in polyuria and polydipsia. Long acting synthetic analogue acts predominently for the treatment of diabetes insipidus. -Oxytocin: When stimulated to an increase in intracellular calcium and muscle contraction. Also causes contraction of uterine smooth muscle and may initiate labor. Oxytocin may also stimulate milk ejection in lactting mothers by stimulation myopepithelial cells areound the alveoli of te mamary glands by being administered intraveinously. Oxytocin is metabolized in liver and kidneys but not bound to plasma protein so it has a very short circulating half life of 5 minutes. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The pituitary's target endocrine glands are the thyroid, adrenal gland, and the gonads <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Controls the growth of the skeleton and regulates the functions of the thyroid and the gonads. =<span style="color: #365f91; font-family: Cambria; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Thyroid Hormones = <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Stimulates oxygen consumption and metabolism <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Regulate the growth of body tissues and the rate at which food is burned to provide body energy. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Over activity = hyperthyroidism, which causes nervousness and irritability. Another thyroid condition, cretinism, is caused by a congenital lack of thyroid secretion. It is marked by greatly stunted physical and mental growth. =<span style="color: #365f91; font-family: Cambria; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Insulin and Glucagon = <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The pancreas produces two important hormones, **insulin** and glucagon. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Insulin is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fat. =<span style="color: #365f91; font-family: Cambria; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Adrenal Glands and Gonads = <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Hormones in the adrenal glands control the concentration of salts and water in body fluids and are necessary for maintaining life. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Produce sugar from proteins and store it in the liver to help maintain resistance to physical and emotional stress.
 * <span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msolist: Ignore; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidithemefont: minor-latin;"> 6-  **<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">gonads (reproductive glands) in the torso.



= Actions of insulin: = <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif';">To lower blood glucose concentration Pharmacokinetics: <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif';">Biotransformed in variety of organs including liver kidney and skeletal muscles. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif';">Metabolism of insulin results in inactive peptides <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif';">Half life is approximately 8 minutes in a non diabetic patient = The Insulin Receptor and Mechanism of Action = <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Georgia','serif';">The insulin receptor is composed of two alpha subunits and two beta subunits linked by disulfide bonds. <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Georgia','serif';">The alpha chains are entirely extracellular and house insulin binding domains, while the linked beta chains penetrate through the plasma membrane. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The insulin receptor is a tyrosine kinase. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">It functions as an enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to tyrosine residues on intracellular target proteins. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Binding of insulin to the alpha subunits causes the beta subunits to phosphorylate thus activating the catalytic activity of the receptor. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Georgia','serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The activated receptor then phosphorylates a number of intracellular proteins, which in turn alters their activity, therefore generating a biological response. = Insulin Deficiency and Excess Diseases =

Examples
Thyroid hormones are taken by mouth (orally) except in unusual cases, such as myxedema coma. That condition requires intravenous (IV) medicine. Dosages vary with the person's age and the severity of the disease. 
 * ~ Generic Name ||~ Brand Name ||
 * desiccated thyroid (not recommended for replacement therapy) || Armour Thyroid ||
 * levothyroxine sodium (T4) || Levothroid, Levoxyl, Synthroid ||
 * liothyronine sodium (T3) || Cytomel ||
 * liotrix (T3 and T4) || Euthroid, Thyrolar ||

How It Works
People with hypothyroidism have lower-than-normal or no thyroid function and do not make enough thyroid hormone for the body to function properly. Taking thyroid hormone medicine replaces missing hormones. 

Why It Is Used
Thyroid hormone medicines are given when blood tests indicate you have hypothyroidism. Thyroid hormone medicines also may be prescribed: 
 * For mild (subclinical) hypothyroidism when you test positive for antithyroid antibodies.
 * For an enlarged thyroid gland (goiter).

How Well It Works
People with hypothyroidism who take thyroid hormone medicine usually notice: In most cases, thyroid hormone medicine works quickly to correct symptoms. Myxedema coma can respond well to thyroid hormone medicine and treatment in an intensive care unit. But a good outcome depends on how soon treatment starts. 
 * Improved energy level.
 * Gradual weight loss (in people with severe hypothyroidism at the time of diagnosis).
 * Improved mood and mental function (thinking, memory).
 * Improved pumping action of the heart and improved digestive tract function.
 * Reduction in the size of an enlarged thyroid gland (goiter), if you have one.
 * Improved growth, school performance, and behavior in children. Children whose growth has been delayed because of hypothyroidism start growing normally again once they get adequate doses of thyroid hormone.
 * Lower cholesterol and triglyceride levels.

Side Effects
In general, you will not have side effects if you are taking the correct amount of thyroid hormone medicine. Side effects of too much thyroid medicine include: Report any side effects to your doctor. If you have coronary artery disease and you take too much thyroid medicine, symptoms such as chest pain (angina) or heart rhythm irregularities (arrhythmia) may get worse. Also, you may have an increased risk of heart attack. See Drug Reference for a full list of side effects. (Drug Reference is not available in all systems.)
 * Heart palpitations.
 * Nervousness.
 * Trouble sleeping (insomnia).
 * Shaking (tremors).
 * Frequent bowel movements.
 * Too much weight loss.
 * Discomfort in warm weather.
 * Bone thinning (osteoporosis) if the dose is too high for a long time.

Pituitary Hormones:

ACTH is also known as corticotrophin. || TSH is also known as thyrotrophin. || Testes (Men) || Controls reproductive functioning and sexual characteristics. Stimulates the [|ovaries] to produce [|estrogen] and [|progesterone] and the testes to produce [|testosterone] and sperm. LH and FSH are known collectively as Gonadotrophins. LH is also referred to as Interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) in males. || This hormone is also known as vasopressin or arginine vasopressin (AVP). || [|breasts] || Affects uterine contractions in pregnancy and birth and subsequent release of breast milk. || Control of hormone production is monitored continuously and regulated using
 * ~ Hormone ||~ Target(s) ||~ Function ||
 * ACTH || Adrenals || Stimulates the [|adrenal gland] to produce a hormone called [|cortisol].
 * TSH || Thyroid || Stimulates the [|thyroid gland] to secrete its own hormone, which is called [|thyroxine].
 * LH & FSH || Ovaries (Women)
 * PRL || Breasts || Stimulates the [|breasts] to produce milk. This hormone is secreted in large amounts during pregnancy and breastfeeding, but is present at all times in both men and women. ||
 * GH || All cells in the body || Stimulates growth and repair. Research is currently being carried out to identify the functions of GH in adult life. ||
 * MSH ||  || Exact role in humans unknown, but increases skin pigmentation in amphibians. ||
 * ADH || Kidneys || Controls the blood fluid and mineral levels in the body by affecting water retention by the {kidney} kidneys.
 * Oxytocin || [|Uterus]